The TRANSFARM project (Vocational education & training for transhumance practitioners), financed by the ERASMUS+ funding programme, aims to empower transhumance practitioners and rural entrepreneurs who wish to start or maintain transhumance practices and provide them with training material. At the same time, the project wishes to raise awareness on transhumance with a specific focus on its benefits for rural development, landscape management, and biodiversity. The TRANSFARM project started in December 2021 and will end in May 2024 and consists of seven partners across multiple European countries: the Institute for Research on European Agricultural Landscapes e.V. (DE), Hof und Leben (DE), OnProjects (ES), the Technical University in Zvolen (SK), the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (GR), the European Landowners’ Organisation (BE), and the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NO) – the latter coordinating the project. In addition, the project has three associated partners: The Polish Farm Advisory and Training Centre (PL), the Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy (NO) and VetAgroSup (FR).
To be considered as transhumance within the TRANSFARM project, livestock has to be accompanied by people. To distinguish between the various types of transhumance practices, characteristics such as range, distance, and direction of elevational movement have been used. For example, vertical transhumance takes place between lowlands and mountain valleys and high-altitude mountain pastures, as can be observed in the Alps and Scandinavia. Horizontal transhumance refers to a continuous movement of livestock without large differences in altitude.
However, from a European perspective, transhumance encompasses a broad range of practices that resist clear-cut definition. More recently, landscape management has emerged as a prevailing purpose of transhumance, and an everincreasing use of modern means of transportation and technological tools (e.g., no fence technology through collars with GPS transmitters) have utterly diversified transhumance practices. Moreover, transitions to practices occur that comprise the movement of livestock among pastures as well as people who look after the livestock; however, the degree to which livestock is attended in person is decreasing due to technological advances. As one of the first steps of the TRANSFARM project, the partners compiled an overview about the current situation of transhumance in their respective countries into National Reports: France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, the Low Countries (including Belgium and the Netherlands), Norway, Slovakia, and Spain. These in-depth reports are available from the project’s website.
As an addition to the National Reports, this Summary Report collates information from the Reports into an overview across national borders with the goal to present the state transhumance practices across a continental scale, in contrast to a national scale. The information presented in this report follows a structure similar for all National Reports and answers a set of questions agreed upon by the project partners to ensure consistency. Topics covered include the current extent of and awareness about transhumance, educational offers, as well as challenges for transhumance practitioners. This Summary Report provides information about transhumance in a very condensed form. Interested readers are asked to refer to the section ‘Literature and additional resources’ and the National Reports for more countryspecific information. Moreover, text boxes will be added to the online version of this Summary Report to provide even more additional information.
Transhumance is currently practised in all project countries, apart from the Low Countries, which will therefore no longer be considered in the remaining part of the report.
Summer pastures (where livestock graze) are located in mountainous areas as well as in other areas of marginal crop production (e.g., salt marshes and heathlands), whereas winter pastures are commonly located in the lowlands.
More recently urban and peri-urban (adjacent to cities) areas have been taken into use for transhumance.
Urban transhumance (or eco-pastoralism) comprises livestock grazing of urban areas and peri-urban areas. In France, this way of managing urban green spaces in an environmentally friendly manner is increasingly used by municipalities but also companies, for example, in the region of Paris. Urban transhumance supports awareness raising since it brings transhumance – typically occurring in rural and often remote areas – to areas where many people live.
In central and southern European partner countries, the practice of transhumance started already in the Neolithic, which is the era when farming began. In contrast, in Slovakia & Hungary, it was first introduced during the Middle Ages. Throughout history, transhumance increased and decreased based on country- and region-specific events. However, what unites all the countries is the current decreasing trend of transhumance practices in the modern era.
The most common types of livestock used for transhumance across the project partner countries that have been identified are sheep, goats, and cattle;
To a minor degree, horses and buffaloes have also been identified as being involved in transhumance;
In some countries, accompanying animals are used for transport (donkeys) and protection (dogs). These animals are used for transhumance practices and are not the animals being shepherded;
In several countries, both regional and local breeds are used for transhumance (Figure 2). In the long-term, this helps maintain a diversity of different breeds.
Figure 2. Types of local and regional livestock breeds used for transhumance practices in Europe; background map
Table 2. Estimated number of livestock involved in transhumance per project partner country.
| Countries | France | Germany | Greece | Hungary | Italy | Norway | Slovakia | Spain |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Number of heads of livestock |
Alps & Provence: 770,000 sheep, 90,000 cattle, 15,000 goats, 2000 horses Jura: 35,000 cattle |
50,000 cattle, 115,000 sheep |
60,000 cattle, 934,000 sheep & goats |
20,000 |
266,000 sheep & goats 215,000 cattle |
- |
- |
365,000 cattle (intra- community) 45,000 cattle (inter- community; outward) 30,000 cattle (inter- community; return) 450,000 sheep (intra- community) 50,000 sheep (inter- community) |
|
Number of heads of livestock (%) |
c. 22 |
< 1 of the cattle c. 8 of the sheep |
< 6.5 of the cattle c. 7.5 of the sheep & goat flocks |
- |
2.2 sheep & goats 3.6 cattle & buffaloes |
- |
- |
6 cattle 3 sheep |
A particularly large number of local and regional breeds are used for transhumance in France. For example, in the Alpes dairy cattle breeds such as Tarentaise cattle, Abondance cattle and Montbéliarde are used. The breeds produce milk known for its cheese-making qualities. In the Pyrenees, Blonde d’Aquitaine is a common cattle breed used for meat production. In addition to the rich variety of cattle breeds a number of different sheep breeds occur in France. Only in the Massif Central ten endemic sheep breeds graze. In the Pyrenees the breeds Basco-béarnaise, Manech Tête rousse and Tête noire are used for milk production, the breeds Rouge du Roussillon, Castillonaise, Tarasconnaise, Aure et Campan, Barégeoise and Lourdaise for meat production.
A range of transhumance practitioners have been found; farmers (male and female), members of the farmers’ families, hired shepherds and dairymaids/men (responsible for milking and processing of milk) (Figure 3);
As a whole, transhumance practitioners are men – shepherds and dairymen, with Norway being the only exception where dairymaids are far more common than dairymen;
In France, an increasing trend of female herders has been identified;
In addition, there is an increasing trend in the share of transhumance practitioners coming from abroad, due to immigration (among other factors);
However, there is a significant lack of centralised, consistent, and standardised statistics of transhumance practitioners across the continent (Table 3).
Figure 3. Examples of transhumance practitioners; background map
Table 3. Transhumance practitioners and farms or seasonal farms involved in transhumance across selected TRANSFARM project partner countries.
| Countries | France | Germany | Greece | Hungary | Italy | Norway | Slovakia | Spain |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Number of transhumance practitioners |
c. 20,000 shepherds |
2,600 or less farmers |
- |
c. 100 - 500 practictioners |
> 8,000 practicioners |
- |
- |
- |
|
Farms/seasonal farms involved in transhumance |
c. 60,000 farms |
- |
3,300 sheep & goat farms 940 cattle farms |
- |
- |
780 seasonal farms |
- |
8400 farms |
In Greece transhumance practitioners traditionally belong to three main ethnic groups Vlachoi, Sarakatsanaioi and Koupatsaraioi. From the 17th century onwards, the Vlachs divided into two groups. One group kept traditional transhumance practices while the other group became permanently settled. The latter group got the name Koupatsaraioi. The Sarakatsanaioi were first mentioned in 1847 describing transhumance sheep and goat farmers who established their sheepfolds outside villages. They did not have a permanent residence but erected ephemeral building structures and covered large distances with their livestock.
Current transhumance practices cover a broad range of movement patterns across the continent (Figure 4).
The most common movement is from low-elevation areas in winter to high-elevation areas in summer due to limited space in lowland areas (among other reasons). Pastures in high elevations are due to climatic conditions only available during summer.
However it is interesting to highlight the significant differences in elevational range and distances covered among countries and regions.
Overall, movement occurs via vehicles (e.g., lorries, trailers), however there is still a presence of movement on foot
Travel distances can vary a lot within one country as the example of Greece shows. Small local movements occur as well as movements up to 50 km and medium range travels over 50 and up to 100 km. Movements up to 100 km are mainly carried out in the central and western part of the country and in Peloponnese. Long distance movements of more than 100 km and up to 200 km are typical for the eastern part of Thessaly and occur frequently in Aitoloakarnania, in the western part of Central Greece. Even very long-distance travels of more than 200 km and up to 350 km occur, typical for the central part of the country to the western and northern part of Greece.
France is an example of a country with an especially large variety of movement patterns occurring in different regions. A vertical movement with cattle during summer is, for example, common in the Alps where the summer grazing starts at least before 15 July and ends after 15 September but may be extended as long as after 15 October. Travel distances are commonly short; however, the movement between the Provence and the Northern Alps covers a distance of about 500 km. There is a trend to keep productive animals rather at lower altitudes, thereby reducing grazing at higher altitudes. Winter movements with cattle and sheep from high altitude areas to the plain occur, for example, south of the Massif Central where several herds of the Causses and Cévennes area move to the lowlands to graze vineyards and shrubland areas. In the Pyrenees a similar movement to the plains occur during winter. In addition to these rather vertical movements, horizontal movements on the plain occur in areas such as the salt meadows of the Bay of the Somme or Mont Saint Michel.
The main purpose of transhumance is to make use of grazing resources for livestock. Transhumance practitioners provide a range of different products: milk and associated products (e.g., cheese and yoghurt) as well as meat and associated products (e.g., sausages).
However, it is interesting to point out that the historically valuable wool has decreased in value. Landscape management is becoming an increasingly important purpose of transhumance occurring, for example in protected areas (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Purposes of and major products resulting from transhumance practices in selected European countries; background map
The production of wool has historically been an important business for transhumance practitioners. The Merino breed producing high quality wool was established in Spain during the Middle Ages. Export of Merino sheep was forbidden until the ban was lifted in 1760. In Spain the Merino husbandry was greatest during the late Middle Ages and Modern Era. After WWII the introduction of new fibers has affected the profitability of wool production. Even for the highest quality wool the income may be too small to cover the production costs and herders may even be obliged to pay for the disposal of the wool.
In several TRANSFARM project countries landscape management has been added as a new purpose of transhumance. To which degree landscape management is important for transhumance practitioners differs. For example, in Slovakia transhumance is very important for nature conservation management in protected areas. Regular grazing prevents mountain pastures from becoming overgrown with shrubs and trees and helps to preserve grazing-dependent species. Also, in Hungary where most of the current transhumance activities are carried out in protected areas, transhumance for management purposes is very important. National park directorates keep herds to manage grasslands for nature conservation purposes. In contrast, in Italy, transhumance is not allowed to be carried out in protected areas, as for example, along riverbeds.
Historically, across all partner countries, transhumance has been an important socio- economic production system. While income from transhumance and transhumance’s importance for practitioners’ self-sufficiency has declined in recent times, transhumance provides significant cultural heritage values.
Nationally and internationally recognized tangible and intangible cultural heritage provides new economic opportunities for rural communities in terms of tourism. Transhumance is also important for maintaining tangible and intangible cultural heritage, attractive landscapes, and biodiversity.
Transhumance provides important knowledge on how to utilise marginal resources and produce high-quality food at the same time. This is crucial in modern times and for future perspectives since there is an increase in demand for locally produced high-quality food.
In Italy, the tratturi – ancient droves – connect Abruzzo, Molise, Campania, Puglia, and Basilicata. The droves played a key role in the history of the landscape. In the past their size and way of use was regulated, and rural and urban settlements were developed among them. Laws to protect the tratturi exist since 1939. The recognition of transhumance as UNESCO Intangible Heritage is strongly supported by local action groups interested in the preservation and maintenance of transhumance practices. In Norway, a broad range of traditions are linked to transhumance practices such as the movement of livestock and processing of milk. These include selection criteria for the cow to carry the (largest) bell, chants or short songs to call the livestock for milking and believes about non-human creates such as gnomes and goblins.
Transhumance and related practices, such as grazing, shape landscapes in a distinct way. Transhumance removes and prevents shrubs and trees from establishing and creates and helps to preserve biologically diverse landscapes. Pastures grazed by transhumance herds hold one of the highest floristic diversities in Europe, and richness of other species such as insects and mammals is dependent on grazing activities. The removal of trees and shrubs reduces the amount of fuel available for forests fires and thereby their intensity. Controlling fires prevents soil degradation since forest fires may lead to severe soil erosion. Decline of transhumance practices result in comprehensive landscape changes. In Norway, areas opened-up by transhumance regrow and plant species dependent on disturbance by livestock decline. Elements of cultural heritage such as foundation walls of formers buildings become less visible and regrowing landscapes are more difficult to navigate and less attractive for recreational activities and not at least for future grazing.
For the most part, farmers, shepherds, or companies own the livestock that is used for transhumance.
Pastures are owned by a wide range of different stakeholders: official public bodies (e.g., state, municipalities), communities, farmers, and other private landowners.
Transhumance practitioners, as a whole, receive funding and support in line with other agricultural practitioners, such as payments through the Common Agricultural Policy and compensation payments for livestock killed by F predators (Figure 7).
| FUNDING AVAILABLE | FUNDING NOT AVAILABLE |
|---|---|
|
Norway |
Spain |
|
France |
Hungary |
|
Germany |
Slovakia |
|
Italy |
Greece |
Figure 7. Availability of funding in TRANSFARM project partner countries specifically targeted at transhumance activities.
In some countries, landscape management is remunerated (e.g., Germany and Hungary), whereas in others it is not. In some countries transhumance practitioners receive funding targeted at transhumance
In France, transhumance activities are mainly organized by collective pastoral associations: pastoral land associations and pastoral groups. They bring together landowners, organize maintenance, soil protection and technical equipment, manage number of tourists, etc. In Norway, the Norwegian seasonal farming organization aims at promoting seasonal farming and increasing knowledge among its members. Moreover, it tries to impact the framework within which transhumance practitioners develop their business. These types of associations help to increase awareness about transhumance and to make transhumance visible.
In all countries, informal acquisition of knowledge through learning from other practitioners has been identified as an important way for transhumance practitioners to get access to know-how and skill development.
The degree to which vocational education and training is available varies strongly among countries (Figure 8).
In several countries courses providing different kinds of skill development within, for example, herding, hygiene regulations or cheese production are offered by private and public organisations; however few countries offer comprehensive education by one specific organisation.
Figure 8. Types of formal education of and on transhumance practices offered across selected European countries. N.B.: learning from other practitioners is an important way to acquire knowledge in all countries.
It has been found that the available knowledge on transhumance practices and to which degree it is easily available differs strongly among countries.
Examples of sources and/or locations for available information have however been consistent with regard to museums, film festivals, research activities, and folk festivals (Figure 9).
A general consensus amongst the project countries is that to increase the awareness on transhumance practices, the knowledge on the topic must be made more available to the general public.
Individuals currently close to and/or linked to agricultural production, e.g., through their place of residence or family ties, have a higher awareness of transhumance than those entirely disconnected from agricultural production.
Based on the limited availability of data across the countries, to compare the degree to which the general public is aware of transhumance among the different countries is not possible, leading to difficulties in finding detailed trends.
In several countries, certain activities (Figure 10) are undertaken to raise awareness of transhumance, such as festivals that specifically celebrate the return of the livestock from the mountain pastures (e.g., in France), as well as ones that welcome visitors at seasonal farms.
A noteworthy example of awareness raising is the inscription of transhumance on the UNESCO world heritage list as intangible cultural heritage in 2019.
Festivals related to transhumance activities help to increase awareness of transhumance. In Hungary, festivals, such as the sheep stew festival in Karcag help to make people aware of the cultural values of transhumance. In France, several film festivals are devoted in part or entirely to transhumance, and from the Provence to the Alps a number of shepherds’ and mountain pasture festivals are celebrated in the end of the spring. Most of them have been invented in the beginning of the 1990s.
Transhumance and the values transhumance practitioners produce are recognized to a small degree.
The number of transhumance practitioners is declining, resulting in a decrease in available workforce. This leads to a significantly lower chance of knowledge transfer, due to the fact that transhumance practitioners are the largest source of teachings in the practices.
| MAIN CHALLENGES FOR TRANSHUMANCE | |||
|---|---|---|---|
|
Declining number of practitioners |
Future econonic support and economic viability |
Wolf predation |
Access to water and grazing resources |
|
Spain France Norway Greece Germany Slovakia Hungary |
Spain France Norway Slovakia Germany Greece |
Italy France Slovakia |
France Slovakia |
|
Competition with other types of land use in lowland areas |
|||
|
Spain France Italy |
|||
Figure 11. Identified main challenges for transhumance practices in selected European countries as part of the TRANSFARM project
Serious concerns about uncertainty of future economic support indicates that economic viability is an issue for transhumance practitioners and a deciding factor on whether or not they continue/begin practices. There is rising competition in the lowlands between transhumance practitioners who wish to utilise pasture land and urban and industrial developers. Significant shifts in the natural environment such as the return of the wolf and the impact of climate change on pastures and water supply poses threats and challenges the access to important resources. Other challenges highlighted in the National reports include fragmentation of land, drops in meat consumption, increases in larger-scale farming, and practical and logistical challenges.
In France, the return of the wolf – currently present in all mountain ranges used for transhumance, but especially in the Alps – is an important challenge for transhumance practitioners. One possibility to protect livestock against predation is the use of secure night pens for sheep. The use of such equipment limits grazing to areas where night pens can be established, and daily movements will be reduced to distances that allow to return to the pens for the night. The use of guard dogs is another option to protect herds against predation. However, conflicts with the use of mountain areas for recreational activities may occur. Dogs may attack hikers who (unknowingly) behave in ways that dogs perceive as a threat to their herds, e.g., getting too close or into a flock. To provide information to hikers is an important measure to avoid these types of conflict.
This report has clearly highlighted that transhumance enriches rural areas. It provides attractive and diverse landscapes, tangible and intangible heritage, high-quality food products, and it is an important part of living rural culture. However, declining numbers of transhumance practitioners has been highlighted as one of the main challenges to maintain and develop transhumance throughout the countries represented in the TRANSFARMproject. There is an important need to make the transhumance profession attractive enough to compete with other types of occupations in the rural sector. Thus raising awareness about transhumance and the needs of practitioners is important in this respect. For example, access to pastures needs to be secured, especially in the lowlands.The maintenance of transhumance seems to be challenged by worries about future economic support and viability, meaning that increased and secured economic incentives targeted at transhumance practitioners are important for the future of transhumance.
A declining number of transhumance practitioners has not only had an impact on the degree to which transhumance is practised but also on learning opportunities for practitioners. Transfer of knowledge among different generations of practitioners and learning from each other is as important in the present day as it was in the past. Therefore, to support platforms for knowledge exchange such as transhumance practitioners’ associations is essential to maintain and pass on knowledge. The number of educational offers and the degree to which they are institutionalised differ strongly among the partner countries. Making educational offers available will support knowledge exchange and learning and help to make the transhumance profession more attractive.
This report has shown that there is a broad range of transhumance practices occurring in the partner countries. To promote and raise awareness about transhumance and its values, it is important to support all different ways of practising transhumance. Finally, more knowledge about transhumance is needed especially in terms of providing and collecting data that is comparable across national borders, for example, knowledge about the awareness of transhumance and statistics such as the number of practitioners or heads of livestock involved in transhumance.
This section provides a selection of references to literature about transhumance and other resources that can be used to get country- and place-specific information about transhumance.
farmingfornature.ie/resources/best-practice-guides
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